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By: H. Mine-Boss, M.A.S., M.D.
Medical Instructor, University of Houston
In these states general symptoms hiv infection discount starlix american express, the kidney is underperfused despite a normal or elevated intravascular volume hiv infection detection time buy discount starlix 120 mg on line. It stimulates expansion of intravascular volume by stimulating Na1 reabsorption in the proximal nephron and stimulating thirst antiviral spray buy starlix once a day. In contrast to stimulating plasma volume expansion hiv infection odds purchase starlix canada, which can take hours to days, increased arterial vasoconstriction causes a rapid increase in arterial blood pressure, which may be an important protective mechanism during hemorrhage. In excess can contribute to the development of hypertension and electrolyte abnormalities such as hypernatremia, hypokalemia, and metabolic alkalosis Clinical note: Although renal artery stenosis is still the most common secondary cause of hypertension, primary hyperaldosteronism (Conn syndrome) is now felt to be much more prevalent than previously thought. Pharmacology note: Because aldosterone acts to expand plasma volume, aldosterone antagonists such as spironolactone are useful in managing congestive heart failure. Lossof-function mutations in this latter receptor result in nephrogenic diabetes insipidus. It is clinically useful in diagnosing left-sided heart failure (increased), in excluding left-sided heart failure (normal), and as a predictor of survival. Fluid exchange across the capillary membrane is dependent on the permeability characteristics of the capillary bed and the net filtration pressure generated across the capillary bed. Instead, there is net movement of interstitial fluid into the capillaries, which helps restore intravascular volume. Plasma oncotic pressure: keeps fluid in the vascular compartment # Plasma oncotic pressure leads to fluid accumulation in the interstitium (edema) 2. Additionally, certain kidney diseases such as nephrotic syndrome are characterized by the loss of large quantities of serum protein in the urine, which also may lead to hypoalbuminemia and edema. The fluid that is directed into the interstitium is called a transudate, which is a protein-poor (<3 g/dL) and cell-poor fluid. Because of its low viscosity, it obeys the law of gravity and collects in the most dependent portion of the body. Interstitial hydrostatic pressure: slightly negative because of constant drainage by the lymphatics Interstitial oncotic pressure: outward force (typically small) exerted by interstitial proteins 3. Pathology note: In inflammatory states, increased vascular permeability may result in increased levels of interstitial proteins, which increases interstitial oncotic pressure and drives fluid into the interstitium, causing edema. This type of fluid is protein rich (>3 g/dL) and is cell rich (contains numerous neutrophils) and is called an exudate. Unlike a transudate, it remains localized because of its increased viscosity and does not pit with pressure. The Starling forces in the glomerular capillary bed, for example, will vary markedly from that shown above. The reabsorption of fluid at the venous end of the capillary is typically slightly less than the loss of fluid at the arterial end of the capillary. Therefore, there is a constant "leakage" of fluid from the vascular compartment into the interstitial compartment. One of the primary functions of the lymphatic system is to return this excess fluid to the vascular compartment through the thoracic duct. This capacity can be overwhelmed by significant alterations in the Starling forces or increased capillary permeability. Impaired contractility: myocardial ischemia, myocardial infarction, chronic volumeoverloaded states such as aortic or mitral regurgitation, dilated cardiomyopathy 3. Pathologic increases in afterload: poorly controlled hypertension, aortic stenosis C. Reduced ventricular filling occurs as the result of one of two distinct pathophysiologic mechanisms: either a reduction in ventricular compliance or an obstruction of left ventricular filling. In left ventricular hypertrophy and hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, the thickened myocardium does not relax well. In myocardial ischemia, the O2 supply is not sufficient to support the normal energy requirements of active diastolic relaxation. Mitral stenosis and cardiac tamponade (fluid accumulates in the pericardial space and opposes ventricular filling) b. The healthy heart is initially able to meet this increased demand, but over time the strain imposed on the heart may become too great, at which point the heart begins to fail. Circulatory insufficiency, or shock, is a state of inadequate tissue perfusion, which most often occurs in hypotensive states. This inadequate tissue perfusion invokes powerful compensatory responses from the sympathetic nervous system through diversely located baroreceptors and chemoreceptors. The signs and symptoms of shock, which include cold and clammy skin, rapid and weak pulse, confusion, and reduced urinary output, result as much from the inadequate tissue perfusion as from the compensatory sympathetic response. Septic shock: cytokines released in response to toxins cause widespread vasodilation (called "warm" shock) c. Anaphylactic shock: histamine and prostaglandins released in response to allergens cause widespread vasodilation and increased capillary permeability, resulting in fluid loss into the interstitium 4.
Syndromes
Abdominal pain
Radiation therapy
Increased supply of food with reduced cost and longer shelf life
Laxative
Cognitive-behavioral therapy, including learning to recognize and replace panic-causing thoughts
Face or neck trauma
Coma
Be worse when the person wakes up in the morning, and clear up in a few hours
High blood pressure in the lungs (pulmonary hypertension) with pulmonary obstructive lung disease
A full-thickness incision extending 1 cm beyond both ends of the strictured area is made through the ureter until periureteral fat is noted or contrast extravasation is observed under fluoroscopy [25] hiv infection rate in zimbabwe generic 120 mg starlix amex. After direct visual or fluoroscopic confirmation of the desired stricture release symptoms untreated hiv infection order starlix line, a stent is placed hiv infection through skin cheap starlix master card. Cold knife Balloon dilation Balloon dilation of the ureteroenteric stricture can be performed primarily or in conjunction with another endoscopic modality such as endoureterotomy hiv infection process in the body purchase starlix 120 mg without prescription. At the conclusion of the procedure, a stent is placed across the dilated segment (see Stenting options below). Cold-knife endoureterotomes are generally used with semi-rigid ureteroresectoscopes for retrograde incision of the stricture. The larger diameter sheath and lack of flexibility of the scope limits the extent of narrowing that can be treated under direct visualization. The stricture is cut using arc-like strokes until the ureteral lumen widens enough to allow passage of the scope. Small mucosal bleeding vessels are not routinely fulgurated to minimize the extent of potential thermal injury [27]. A flexible, wire-mounted cold-knife has been described that allows both antegrade and retrograde incision. The wire can be placed through the working channel of the scope to directly guide the blade through the shaft of the knife or pulled under fluoroscopic guidance. Electrocautery Under direct visualization, the smaller Greenwald 2 or 3F electrode probe can be utilized through the semirigid or flexible ureteroscope. At a power setting of 75 W on pure cutting electrocautery current, multiple incisions of the stricture are made using the probe until the fibrotic bands are released. The incision width and length can be fully controlled under direct visualization and hemostasis can be achieved if necessary. Care must be taken to insulate any safety wires that might be exposed to electrical current to prevent conduction to other segments of the ureter or tract. After direct visualization of the narrowed area, the Acucise catheter is advanced over the guidewire using fluoroscopic guidance with the radio-opaque markers at either end of the 3-cm active cutting surface positioned in the area of the ureteroenteric stricture. Attention is given to position the cutting wire in the posteromedial orientation after visual confirmation of an absence of any pulsations in the area of the proposed cut. The Acucise balloon is subsequently inflated with 2 mL of contrast along with simultaneous activation of the cutting wire at 75 W on pure cutting electrocautery current for 5 s. It can be repositioned to traverse any residual narrowing and reactivated as needed. Contrast instillation through the endoureterotomy site may show a small amount of extravasation, confirming the adequacy of the incision. While other types of lasers Ureteral stenting Most patients treated with balloon dilation or endoureterotomy additionally undergo ureteral stent placement at the conclusion of the procedure. The stent remains for a finite period of time in order to maintain ureteral patency, prevent urine extravasation, and promote healing. Significantly prolonged stent duration, however, may promote hyperplastic tissue growth or scarring and prevent adequate healing [25]. Some authors advocate larger stents [13], though others believe that increased pressure from oversized stents may promote fibrosis and recurrent strictures [31]. The stent can be positioned either antegrade or retrograde after establishing guidewire access across the ureteroenteric stricture in a through-and-through fashion. Double-J stents are most commonly used but may be difficult to exchange in patients with incontinent diversions. In patients with an ileal conduit, a nephroureteral stent can be advanced over the exposed guidewire from the stoma in a retrograde fashion to the renal pelvis, with the external portion of the stent placed in the stoma bag for external drainage [32]. In patients who are too ill for more definitive therapy or it is their preference, chronic indwelling ureteral stents may be utilized as the primary treatment. All synthetic stents, however, require periodic exchange secondary to subsequent encrustation and obstruction. Metallic stents have proven success in other organ systems but, in urology, have primarily been employed for malignant ureteral obstruction [33]. Full-length, double-pigtail metallic stents similar to synthetic double-J stents have the advantage of once-yearly exchanges. After removal of the wire, the metallic stent is passed through the lumen of the introducer sheath. Short, permanent, balloon, or self-expandable metal stents, similar to vascular stents, have also been utilized for ureteroenteric strictures. After fluoroscopic confirmation of proper positioning, the outer sheath of the delivery system is removed, thus releasing the stent. If necessary, two or more stents may be placed in tandem for longer strictures [33]. While initial results appeared favorable, later results have been less promising at longer follow-up. Review of the largest and more contemporary series shows patency rates of only 15% at a 1- and 2-year follow-up, which decreased to 5% at 3 years [6].
Further drawbacks are the absence of realtime imaging and the exposure to radiation antiviral herpes medication buy starlix master card. With ultrasound it is generally impossible to locate stones in the major part of the ureter hiv infection in zambia buy starlix online from canada, but it allows direct visualization of radiolucent stones and offers easier targeting of smaller renal stones symptomatic hiv infection symptoms cheap starlix 120 mg. Its major advantage hiv infection canada statistics order discount starlix, however, is realtime imaging, which provides better monitoring of the fragmentation process in the absence of exposure to radiation. Machines where both ultrasound and X-ray are integrated offer the most versatile imaging and targeting possibilities. Ideally, these machines offer simultaneous online use of both ultrasound and X-ray. Targeting versatility is further improved by the possibility to couple the therapy head to the patient both under and above the treatment table. Coupling As already mentioned, shock waves are acoustic waves that travel through a medium by alternating decompression and compression of the medium. Absorption, reflection or refraction of the shock waves can occur at interfaces between media with different acoustic impedance. As water has comparable acoustic properties to human tissue, shock waves are generated and transmitted in water. In order to minimize energy loss of the shock wave at the interface between the patient and the shock wave source, coupling between shock wave source and patient is extremely important [27]. Second- and third-generation lithotripters, however, feature a "dry" coupling, which consists of a water-filled cushion that is inflated and pressed against the patient. In order to guarantee good acoustic transmission, the water cushion is coupled to the patient through the application of ultrasound gel. In this process, both air bubbles in the coupling gel and folds in the water cushion could impair the transmission of acoustic waves. Even tiny air bubbles in this interface can lead to uncontrolled shock-wave attenuation. Decoupling the cushion from the test basin and recoupling it led to a drastic increase in air inclusions. This has led to the recommendation that, if the patient is decoupled during treatment, the coupling procedure must be repeated, including cleansing the coupling cushion and subsequently reapplying gel. After experimenting with various techniques for gel application, as a method of choice Neucks et al. A small vessel opening and manual distribution of the gel lead to increased air pockets and poor disintegration results. This was mainly due to the high costs of the first lithotripters: high capital, running, and maintenance costs. Chapter 50 Lithotripsy Systems 565 decades lithotripters have undergone a transition from pure shock-wave generating devices to multifunctional urologic workstations. An increasing number of obese patients require high load capacity tables with maximum accessibility in order to be able to approach them from all sides. Imaging modalities in a multifunctional workstation need to support the wide range of therapeutic options in urology. Large image intensifiers of up to 16 inches ideally offer a large field of view of nearly the entire urinary tract. Full digitization of the X-ray imaging chain provides excellent image quality at low radiation dose. Increasing awareness of radiation safety and dose reduction make ultrasound stone localization an ideal tool for stone targeting and accurate therapy monitoring. Last but not least, a high performance shock-wave source, which ideally can be coupled to the patient in an over- and under-table position, completes the design of a multifunctional lithotripter. Multifunctional machines can have a modular design, where all components are separate modules to be "connected" according to need, or an integrated design where all components are integrated in the machine and ideally adapted to their function. A third design, the "hybrid", offers integration of imaging and/or therapy head in a common console with a detached treatment table. As the imaging components, a fluoroscopic C-arm and an ultrasound machine, usually are available on site, investment cost is limited to the shock-wave module and the treatment table. The imaging components can also be used for other purposes, both in urology and other departments. Modular systems have no need for a dedicated lithotripsy room and are easily transported from one center to another. Due to the combination ad hoc of different modules, the footprint is larger and the floor is cluttered with an array of machinery. In endourologic procedures, this footprint is further enlarged by the addition of an electrosurgical unit, light sources, and monitors, etc. The uro-table is less urologist friendly with limited accessibility, and overall handling is more complicated. Integrated design In an integrated design, the different components, shock-wave source, imaging, and treatment table, are fully integrated in one stand-alone system (Figures 50. Uro-table function usually is excellent and offers great comfort in the performance of endourologic procedures. Hybrid design In these machines imaging (fluoroscopy and/or ultrasound) and shock-wave source are mounted on a combined console (Figure 50. Both investment cost and footprint are between that for a machine with an integrated design and a device with a modular design. Some of the components (imaging, patient table) are suited for multifunctional and multidisciplinary usage.
Most commonly stages of hiv infection and treatment purchase starlix 120mg without prescription, staghorn stones are composed of a mixture of struvite (magnesium ammonium phosphate) and calcium carbonate apatite hiv infection rate in costa rica buy discount starlix 120mg on-line. In fact antiviral valacyclovir side effects purchase starlix 120mg with amex, hypercalciuric patients begin with calcium oxalate stone formation and develop superimposed infection with struvite deposition [43 anti viral throat spray buy cheap starlix 120mg line, 44]. Silverman and Stamey identified Proteus as the dominant microorganism in 72% of isolates from stone Chapter 26 Percutaneous Instillation of Chemolytic, Chemotherapeutic, and Antifungal Agents formers [45]. Urease produced by such bacteria leads to hydrolysis of urea to ammonium, hydroxide, and bicarbonate, which increase the urine pH (>7. This alkaline urine, in the presence of trivalent phosphate, results in struvite crystal formation [46]. Other urease producers include Klebsiella, Pseudomonas, and Staphylococcus species [45, 47]. However, the most ubiquitous uropathogen, Escherichia coli, only rarely produces urease and thus is an infrequent cause of staghorn calculi [48]. Struvite stones are characterized by their large size and exceptionally rapid growth. It is not uncommon for a staghorn calculus to involve the entire renal pelvis and calyces, nor for it to be formed within a 4-week period [42]. Management of struvite stone disease is one of the most frustrating problems in urology as efforts to eradicate such stones often have suboptimal success rates. The problem is not only ridding the patient of the calculi but also sterilizing the urine. Persistence of infection was estimated to occur in approximately 40% and is believed to be responsible for many of the stone recurrences [49]. The presence of small stone particles with embedded bacteria serves as a nidus for new stone formation and rapid recurrences. Therefore, postoperative irrigation therapy has been proposed to potentially reduce struvite stone recurrences [50, 51]. The drug acts synergistically with several antibiotics, sterilizing the urine more rapidly. The usual dose is 250 mg orally three times daily to be reduced to twice daily for mild renal impairment, and it is contraindicated in patients with severe renal insufficiency and in pregnancy. The most commonly reported side effects are hemolytic anemia, neurosensory deficits, and thrombophlebitis. Headache, gastrointestinal upset, weakness, and flushing sensation after alcohol ingestion have also been reported [56]. Systemic oral chemolytic agents are seldom effective in reducing stone burden on their own and direct chemolysis of struvite calculi is a far more effective method of dissolution. The acids present in this solution provide hydrogen ions and citrate to form soluble complexes with phosphate (phosphoric acid) and calcium (calcium citrate) from the stone (Table 26. Magnesium undergoes ion exchange with calcium present in the stone, enhancing dissolution while reducing irritation. Therefore, it is critically important to stop treatment once fever occurs and until any infection has been adequately treated. The presence of catheters and extensive use of antibiotics can also facilitate fungal infection. Replacing the irrigation fluid with amphotericin B (50 mg/500 ml H2O) at a rate of 125 mL/h generally clears the funguria in less than 72 h. Calcium stones Calcium-based calculi constitute about 80% of all urinary tract stone calculi, of which about 80% are calcium oxalate stones [62]. The strong acids required to dissolve this compound cannot be safely used in humans. Only chelating agents have successfully been used in vivo to 298 Section 2 Percutaneous Renal Surgery: Other Uses of Nephrostomy Access Table 26. This sequestration dissolves the calcium component of the stone, thus reducing stone burden. Early use of this solution after stone formation is associated with a better response rate. Summary In summary, the choice of chemolytic agent and method of administration is dependent primarily on stone Chapter 26 Percutaneous Instillation of Chemolytic, Chemotherapeutic, and Antifungal Agents composition and should be tailored to the individual clinical scenario. Manipulation of the pH is most commonly used; however, other modalities include disulfide rearrangement and cation chelation [18]. Manipulation of pH works particularly well for uric acid stones since they are 11 times more soluble at a pH of 6. Therefore, other approaches, including systemic chemolysis with urease inhibitors or direct chemolysis with Ranicidin solution, should be considered. The solubility of cystine is increased in alkaline urine, but is higher than that required to dissolve uric acid (pH of 7. Therefore cystine stones can be more effectively treated with direct chemolysis using disulfide exchange resins. Organpreserving procedures that include ureteroscopic or percutaneous resection and segmental ureterectomy have been reserved typically for patients with solitary kidney, bilateral disease, poor renal function, small tumor burden, and low-grade disease [70]. The advent of improved endourologic techniques facilitates access to any part of the upper tract so that tumor location is no longer a limiting factor. There are several important considerations when using a topical chemotherapeutic agent as compared to a chemolytic or antifungal agent. In terms of mode of instillation, the antegrade approach has been hypothesized to maximize contact between the agent and the urothelium, and minimize contact interference between the agent and retrograde ureteral stent [71].
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